Keralam’s Land Reforms 2.0: Too many unanswered questions


By Madeline CARR
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Recent warnings from American AI leaders have created the impression that the world is only beginning to confront the dangers of advanced artificial intelligence.
Dario Amodei, chief executive of tech company Anthropic, has called for governments to intervene to slow the development of increasingly powerful AI models.
His proposal begins with independent evaluators embedded inside AI companies, moves on to regulation and progresses to government-backed coordination among democratic states.
Ultimately, it seeks global agreements with China on testing of AI systems, dangerous applications of the technology and the pace of AI development.
Yet there is a China-shaped hole in this narrative. The Asian superpower is portrayed as the difficult final participant in a governance system that the US and its allies must first create.
In fact, China has already established an extensive system of AI rules, assessment, filing, technical standards and government oversight. Here’s how China’s AI governance system has developed in stages alongside the technology itself.
Beijing’s 2022 rules on algorithmic recommendation services apply to technologies that select, rank, filter or recommend online content to users.
They compel companies that use algorithms to examine how they work, to protect the personal information of users, to give users certain controls, and to introduce safeguards for workers, consumers, children and older people.
China’s deep synthesis provisions, effective from January 2023, extended regulation to synthetic (or AI-generated) text, images, audio and video. AI companies must authenticate users, protect data, keep relevant records, assess their systems and identify synthetic material that could be mistaken for authentic content.
The interim measures for generative artificial intelligence services were introduced in August 2023. These added rules for public-facing generative AI, particularly those that can influence public opinion or persuade uses in other ways.
The measures apply to the legality and quality of training data, users’ personal information, intellectual property and discrimination based on protected characteristics. The rules also cover transparency by AI companies and the accuracy and reliability of products.
Under the rules, companies must address problems found in their services. These services must undergo a security assessment to examine their risks and compliance with Chinese legislation. The companies must also file information about their algorithms with Chinese authorities.
These mechanisms are not identical to the independent evaluators that would be embedded in AI companies, as has been proposed by Amodei. But they perform some of the same functions.
Frontier risks
Beijing’s latest set of measures is called the AI safety governance framework 3.0, published in September 2026. It sets out a broad approach to identifying, grading and responding to risks throughout the lifecycle of AI systems.
Building on earlier versions, the framework covers AI model and data risks, vulnerabilities in open source models (those which can be freely modified by users), AI’s effects on employment and society and increasingly autonomous systems.
It includes a dedicated mechanism for managing risks associated with rapidly developing AI agents (systems that carry out tasks in response to instructions by a user).
The framework addresses some of the same dangers now generating alarm in Silicon Valley, including highly autonomous systems, the misuse of chemical, biological and nuclear technologies, and the possibility of humans losing control of advanced AI. It proposes continual safety evaluations, risk based safeguards, humans being in charge, and emergency intervention mechanisms.
An independent analysis by the US Carnegie Endowment for International Peace thinktank has described the framework as China’s attempt to “to advance frontier safety without the need for heavy handed regulatory interventions”.
Legal consequences
None of this means that Chinese AI rules should be transplanted elsewhere. Its institutions, regulatory traditions and technological priorities are different.
Many functions now presented as urgent aspirations in the US, including evaluation, accountability for AI companies, risk classification for AI systems, regulatory filing, technical standards and government oversight are already embedded in the governance architecture of the world’s other AI superpower.
The US is free to conclude that a market-led system best serves its economic and strategic interests. The Trump administration has favoured a “minimally burdensome” national approach to AI and has sought to limit more demanding state-level regulation.
But a market-led model cannot mean privatising the rewards of AI while exporting its risks. US companies may capture the commercial gains, while governments elsewhere are left to investigate security incidents, protect public systems and absorb the wider costs when those technologies fail. The OpenAI agent that gained unauthorised access to Australia’s state healthcare service shows how AI risks are being exported.
If Washington rejects extensive controls before systems are released, the US needs a credible legal regime for assessing who is liable for damage caused by those AI models. Otherwise, countries dependent on foreign AI systems will face increasingly difficult choices about whose technology to trust, and on what terms.
Silicon Valley’s governing ethos has long been to “move fast and break things”. That was always a questionable principle for technologies woven deeply into public life. It is untenable for companies whose own leaders now warn that their products could cause catastrophic harm.
Beijing has already surrounded its AI sector with public obligations, regulatory oversight and an evolving framework of risk assessment. A global debate that treats such governance as a future aspiration should at least recognise that one country is already ahead of the curve.
Original article: theconversation.com

Former Swain Co. sheriff faces sex crime charges from NC and Cherokees. He might avoid NC prosecution if judge buys mental fitness claim.
Unfit to stand trial? Ex-sheriff facing sex charges seeks to avoid prosecution. is a story from Carolina Public Press, an award-winning independent newsroom. Our breakthrough journalism shines a light on the critical overlooked and under-reported issues facing North Carolina’s more than 11 million residents. Please consider making a contribution to support our journalism.
The European Union has signed an international agreement strengthening the recovery of criminal assets, as Brussels seeks to address the failure of national authorities to confiscate the overwhelming majority of wealth generated through organised crime, corruption and money laundering.
The agreement, opened for signature in Strasbourg on Wednesday, 14 October, introduces additional provisions governing the identification, freezing, confiscation and management of assets held across national borders.
It supplements the Council of Europe’s Warsaw Convention, which established an international framework for cooperation against money laundering and the financing of terrorism.
The Additional Protocol adopted by the Council of Europe extends existing asset-recovery mechanisms and strengthens the ability of national authorities to cooperate when criminal proceeds are transferred beyond the country where an offence occurred.
European authorities have long struggled to deprive criminal organisations of the profits generated by their activities.
An estimate frequently cited by European institutions suggests that only around one per cent of criminal proceeds are ultimately confiscated.
The figure highlights a persistent weakness in criminal enforcement. Police and prosecutors may identify offenders and secure convictions without recovering the money used to finance further criminal operations.
Organised crime networks can distribute their assets through bank accounts, companies, property holdings and intermediaries operating in different jurisdictions.
Investigators must establish the origin and ownership of those assets, obtain the necessary legal orders and secure cooperation from foreign authorities before funds or property can be transferred again.
The problem has become increasingly serious as criminal organisations operate across several countries while enforcement powers remain largely national.
In an earlier examination of Europe’s response to drug-trafficking networks, EU Today reported on the importance of confiscating criminal assets rather than concentrating exclusively on arrests and drug seizures.
The financial structures supporting trafficking organisations can survive the prosecution of individual members, allowing criminal enterprises to replace personnel and continue operations.
The protocol is intended to address practical obstacles encountered when authorities seek assistance from another country.
Its provisions cover international cooperation in asset recovery, the management of seized property and the execution of confiscation decisions.
They also address circumstances in which confiscation may be possible without a conventional criminal conviction, subject to the safeguards and legal requirements established by participating states.
Such arrangements can be particularly relevant when suspects have fled, proceedings cannot be completed or assets are held through structures designed to conceal their ownership.
The protocol also provides for improved cooperation between designated asset-recovery authorities.
These mechanisms are intended to reduce the delays that can arise when investigators must navigate different national procedures while attempting to secure property that may be rapidly moved or disposed of.
The Council of Europe’s treaty documentation explains that the protocol seeks to update the Warsaw Convention in accordance with developments in international anti-money laundering standards.
The revised framework has also been developed with reference to EU rules and the recommendations of the Financial Action Task Force.
The agreement builds on legislation already adopted within the European Union.
The 2024 Asset Recovery and Confiscation Directive established stronger provisions concerning the tracing, freezing, confiscation and management of assets associated with criminal activity.
That directive is intended to improve national asset-recovery systems and strengthen cooperation between authorities.
The EU has separately developed a new anti-money laundering framework, including the establishment of the Frankfurt-based Authority for Anti-Money Laundering and Countering the Financing of Terrorism.
The authority has responsibilities concerning the supervision of high-risk financial institutions and coordination between national bodies combating illicit financial activity.
The new Council of Europe protocol addresses a related but distinct problem: how authorities recover assets once suspected criminal proceeds have been identified, particularly when those assets are located in another jurisdiction.
An earlier EU Today report on criminal enforcement of sanctions violations illustrated the importance of asset confiscation in cases involving breaches of European restrictions.
Although sanctions enforcement and organised crime investigations operate under different legal arrangements, both can require authorities to identify property, obtain judicial orders and prevent assets from being moved beyond their reach.
The protocol was adopted by the Council of Europe’s Committee of Ministers on 15 May 2026 and opened for signature on 14 October.
The European Union’s participation requires further legal procedures before the new provisions become binding.
The Commission had previously submitted proposals authorising the EU to sign the agreement, reflecting the division of responsibilities between the Union and its member states in criminal justice and financial regulation.
Individual governments must also determine how the international obligations interact with national procedures governing investigations, property rights and confiscation.
The effectiveness of the agreement will depend on the speed of its implementation and the resources available to investigators, prosecutors and financial intelligence authorities.
Criminal organisations can transfer funds internationally through transactions completed in minutes. Judicial cooperation and the enforcement of confiscation decisions frequently require considerably longer.
The protocol offers governments additional instruments for narrowing that gap, but cannot eliminate the administrative and legal obstacles without corresponding improvements in national enforcement.
For European authorities, the practical measure of success will be the amount of criminal wealth that can be identified and recovered.
The Strasbourg agreement provides a wider legal framework for that task at a time when the profits generated by organised crime continue to exceed the assets confiscated by enforcement agencies.
Four in five new jobs created in Britain since 2014 were taken by migrants while the number of British people on out-of-work benefits increased by 2.3 million, according to a report from the Centre for Social Justice.
The post Migrants Taking Four in Five New Jobs appeared first on The Daily Sceptic.





In the second half of this insightful conversation, former political prisoner Mansa Musa joins Black Panther Party archivist and photographer Billy X Jennings to examine the pivotal 1971 FBI office break-in by antiwar activists. The stolen documents exposed COINTELPRO—the federal government’s covert operation to surveil, infiltrate, and dismantle radical political movements. Despite state-sponsored efforts to suppress the organization, the Panthers’ legacy survives through modern social movements, culture, politics, and communal socialism. Oakland Mayor Barbara Lee, who worked closely alongside the Panthers on their early survival programs, brings deep personal insight into their lasting community impact. Published in conjunction with the 60th anniversary of the Black Panther Party, this feature continues our series on the BPP’s enduring role in social justice.
Related links:
Credits:
The following is a rushed transcript and may contain errors. It will be updated.
Mansa Musa:
I was reading Huey’s dissertation for his doctoral called War Against the Black Panther Party: A Study in Oppression in America. And in that, he outlined one COINTELPRO and COINTELPRO systematic attack on the party to the point of Eddie Conway wrote the book called The Greatest Threat Ever, outlining how the federal government systematically targeted anybody, but more specifically members of the Black Panther Party to either isolate them or kill them or send them to prison where they served death of a thousand cuts and then they ultimately die. Talk about once that information came out about COINTELPRO and its involvement in destroying the party, how did that change your views or how did that impact the political landscape as you seen it when it come to organizing and revolutionary ideology?
Billy X Jennings:
It wasn’t till 1970 that people officially found out what COINTELPRO was. We always knew there was some kind of program out there that wiretapped us, how the FBI followed us and set us up for different charges like that. But on a personal basis, COINTELPRO helped me stay out of jail. Now, COINTELPRO is not something they invented for the Black Panther Party. It’s something they always had going on, but they ramped it up three degrees because of the party, how the party came out or how effective the party was. So in 1970, when these young anti-war people broke into this post office in Pennsylvania, it helped me out because at that time, Huey P. Newton was on Nixon’s enemy list. I am Huey P. Newton’s personal aid. So when FBI sees Huey, they see me.
And so I’m a much easier target than Huey. So they started using the draft to gift me, the selective service. Now, this is the same method they used against members of SNCC, another organization that preceded us. They would get the selective service to start sending them letters to have them drafted. And you only got three choices. Either you’re going to leave and go to Canada, you’re going to go underground, or you’re going to jail. Any one of them stopped you from being affected, and that’s what they wanted. They wanted to stop people from being affected so they would hold this selective service thing over their head. So what happened when they did the same thing to me, right? They arrested me when I was with Huey after coming to court. So I went to court for this draft evasion thing. The federal government had three of their attorneys on my case.
And so what happened was this, they wanted to charge me for draft evasion, but my attorney pointed out they wanted all the documents, film, phone, anything connected with Bill Jennings. And they immediately dropped my case on the spot because they were still trying to hide the fact that they had a program called COINTEL PRO and they didn’t want to reveal it because of me.
So they just dropped my case. So I walked away from that whole case because COINTEL PRO was discovered and they didn’t want to dispose all the footage they had of me and Huey together because that’s what they were doing, compiling stuff on Huey. I just happened to be there.
So that’s how COINTEL PRO affected me, but a lot of party members went to jail. Geronimo G Jaga did 27 years. They pulled him off the street. The FBI lied on him. They said he helped kill someone in the LA, but at the same time, the FBI was watching him while he was in Oakland attending meetings. They lied on the brother, just like they did. Maybe about 35 or 40 Panthers went to jail, maybe 35 Panthers were killed through COINTEL PRO. And many like Fred Hampton were victims, minding their own business. The next thing you know, law enforcement has them in their clutches one way or another. So it was not easy being a party member during those times.
Mansa Musa:
And they knew Eddie Conway was at work when this incident happened. They went to where he worked at in the post office and told the people to say that he wasn’t at work. And then they planted a snitch in his cell or they had one of them snitchers come up and say that Eddie said something. They had coerced people to lie against. So to your point, that was their methodology during that time. Like you say, they going to get you through selective service. They’re going to get you through income tax. They’re going to get you any way, shape, form or fashion. But talk about what do you think about this recent group in Philly that call themselves the Black Panther and then switch their name to the Black Lions and they’re doing some organizing. They got a large presence on social media. They can be seen, engaged in mutual and exercising their rights through confrontation with the police.
Basically, their strategy is being more confrontational. Are you familiar with them and what you think about
Billy X Jennings:
Them? Well, I am somewhat familiar with them. I get emails from them, messages. But just recently there was a meeting held in Philadelphia with Panthers, real Panthers, original Panther members and members of the Black Lions. We suggested then that they change their name because our legacy was built on positive direct action in the community. This is our legacy. We can’t have any young group. We don’t even know what you believe. Come and say you’re party members. The Black Panther Party stopped existing in 1982. So you should come up with a name for your own legacy so people can identify you because what you’re doing, we don’t know who you are. COINTELPRO and all that, you might be good at heart, but we don’t know you. Start your own legacy. Start from ground one, change your name because our name is built on our legacy of what we’ve done and we don’t know what you’re going to do.
The Black Panther Party had 14 different medical facilities. Two are still open to this very day, one in Seattle and one in Portland.
Mansa Musa:
You
Billy X Jennings:
Can see Black Party still alive in groups like the Gray Panthers. They took up where the Black Panther Party left off with the senior citizens. The Black Panther Party had a senior escort service. All these different services the party provided, free buses to prison program. And the main purpose for that program was to keep the family unit together
Mansa Musa:
Because
Billy X Jennings:
People have cars, but many of the state prisons are far, far away. You might have a car that’s good for getting around the city, but getting on the freeway, your car might not make it. So we provide these services to keep the family unit together. It’s good that the Black Lives change their name. It’s good they’re doing social work in the community, but they also have to understand that longevity. Dealing with the police is good to have people who deal with the police who the police know they can’t run and rub shot it in our community. I don’t have anything bad about that, but that shouldn’t be your main focus. That should not be what you’re all about. The party blossom out past that, that’s how we started getting community support, breakfast programs, liberation school, providing services for people. That’s how you get people to change their mind, their attitudes about you.
They see what you do through your social
Mansa Musa:
Practice. In that regard, Billy, talk about what would be your message to youth because you got a lot of young people that’s learning about the party. You got a lot of young people that’s through social media becoming informed about it. And what would you tell them when they come up and say, okay, to your point, no, you’re not original member of the Black Panther Party. No, you don’t have the right to say that in terms of and then saying that’s what you are. But what would you tell them when they come up and say, we want to change the condition, social conditions, we want to do it in the same light that the Black Panther Party did it. What would you tell them to do?
Billy X Jennings:
I would tell them the Black Panther Party were operating in the 1960s and we’re in the 2026 era right now. So we can’t go back and keep doing stuff in the past. We had to come up with new ways of doing things, a new attitude of doing things. We set the table for all these social programs to be embraced in the community, but they have to take it from there. They have to take where we started and bring it into their conditions now. And I would say to young people, get with another group that has your same ideology, your same philosophy. If they’re serving the community or working in the community, work with them because we need to unify all our efforts and come together. Educating young people, having political education classes, taking people outside of the community, outside of their environment so they can see the bigger world and see where they fit in.
All those things are things that are doable things, job training, telling people how to write a resume. Those are those small things, but those things that help because we have a lot of hardcore brothers who get out of jail who are not educated in the educational system. They need that kind of nourishment to bring them up. That’s what we should be doing, community service to bring our people up and not run away from the people. The Black Panther Party, when we had social programs, we invited people to come back to work. We provided a place for doctors and nurses to, if you wanted to give back to the community, we have a clinic here. You could donate four to six hours a week to have those facilities there or people in the community or have a community meeting around issues in the community. That’s how you bring interested people together, unifying people.
Mansa Musa:
Yeah, that’s a good point because they got what they call the Malcolm X Grassroots Collective. I’m in DC and what they do every second and fourth Wednesday of the month, they have political education class and their political education. They’re not calling themselves some other than what they are organizing, but what they do, they have political education class and then the materials that they use, they using materials that they learned about from the Black Panther Party. But talk about the 60th and what you got planned with some of the things that you’ll be organizing for the 60th.
Billy X Jennings:
Well, that’s a lot. Well, I would say the 60th is what my particular role is, is I’m sponsoring a couple workshops on chapter history. Black Panther Party had over 40 different offices of the Black Panther Party. And there’s a lot of history in these different cities and geographical areas that we don’t know about that only the local people there knew about. So we’re trying to bring that history together so that people in Chicago would know what the people in Portland, Oregon was doing or the people in Seattle will find out who were some of the people that started the party down in Houston, Texas. And some of the programs, Salem, some of the problems the Winston-Salem chapter deal with because they were a chapter of the Black Panther Party that was actually in the South because they had problems that a lot of us didn’t have in California,
So forth. But chapter history, I’m doing some tours of Oakland, like I said, to educate a lot of people who’ve never been there before. A lot of people come to the reunions, they bring their grandkids or their great-grands. They want to show them what they was involved in, how all this thing originated. I have doing tours. I got a couple exhibits at the main library in Oakland about Black Panther Party rank and file. I have an exhibit open October 5th at the Alameda Law Library, which is across the street from the Oakland main library. Oh,
It’s across the street from the Oakland Main Museum. So that exhibit’s going to focus on the impact of the Black Panther Party on the law because of the political prisoners, clientele pro, racism in the police department, all those kind of things. So I got my hands full and on the 18th, which is the last day of the conference, I’m in charge of a day in Bobby Hutton Park. Local hip hop artists, poets, a couple bands will live music and we have speakers come, going to do it like we did back in the 1960s. Treat music, food, a joyful day in the community. Don’t caution that and all you have to do is bring your blanket, sit out and hear some speeches and hear some music and unify in the community.
Mansa Musa:
Okay. Thank you, Billy. Thank you. And Billy, we really appreciate you taking your time out to come on and educate our audience about all things the Black Panther Party. More importantly, clearing up a lot of misconcepts about the party, what it stood for, some of the more subtleties of it as opposed to, to your point, a lot of the things that was distorted primarily for the purpose of disassociating it from people, getting people to look at it in a different light. You came on today and educated us on how the party really operated as, like y’all said, the Vanguard intercommunal with us.
Billy X Jennings:
The party’s whole thing is to educate people. I had a young lady who worked in my campaign office when Bobby Seal ran for mayor. She is now the mayor of Oakland. So I know that she knows about the 10 point program and all those things. So the party is about growth and development and stuff like that. The Black Police Officers Association of Oakland was started because of the Black Panther Party, right? Because when they shut up our office on 45th and Grove in September 1968, the Black officers refused to help the white officers who was suspended from their job for shooting at that office. And they started an organization, which is one of the biggest Black organizations in Oakland. But a lot of people don’t know that history, but when we have chapter histories, a lot of this history that happened in those cities come up.
Who were now in charge of state health facilities work at the medical clinic and stuff like that. So there’s a lot of roots where people came from. We just have to talk about it, dig it up and document it for future generations because 17 years ago, when I was 17, I joined the party. Today I talked to people from all over the world. I just got off the phone talking to the New Zealand Panthers who are going to send some representatives out here. They have 15 members that came for our 50th. We have people from all over the world. We have Charlotte O’Neill coming in from Tanzania.
Mansa Musa:
Okay.
Billy X Jennings:
For over 50 years. Charlotte’s going through our libations. She has a film. She travels the world. We have all type of Panthers coming in, so this is going to be a event.
Mansa Musa:
There you have it. There you have the bars today. Look, you gave that row out. And we thank you for coming and sharing this information because like you said, at the end of the day, after everything all is said and done, the party was about educating our people about getting them to understand their right to self-determination and how to go about getting self-determination, understanding the contradictions, understanding social conditions, and more importantly, organizing to change conditions. And it’s a tribute to the party. No matter what people say about the party, that is the lasting legacy of the party is educate, educate, educate. Thank you, Billy. We appreciate you. All right. How do you want people to get in touch with you if they want to get in touch with you? They
Billy X Jennings:
Can get in touch with me by going to our website, itsabouttimebpp.com, which there’s a phone number and an address on that website. But for the 60th, you can go to bpp60.org for your latest update information on what’s happening with the 60th.

Louisiana recently started executing death-row prisoners after more than 20 years of not doing so (save a “voluntary” execution in 2010, when a prisoner waived his right to appeal and said he wanted to die). John Corley, an award-winning writer who is incarcerated at Louisiana’s Angola prison, reflects on how MAGA politics have re-invigorated the practice of state killing in Louisiana and elsewhere, and what it means for the tenor of life in institutions like Angola:
Dalton Prejean Jr, who is serving time for manslaughter, found Hoffman’s execution particularly painful. When he was ten years old, in 1990, his father died in the penitentiary’s electric chair. “The day it all went down, it was almost like reliving the moments leading up to my father’s execution,” Prejean told me. “At ten o’clock the news reporter announced that Hoffman was dead. My heart skipped. I couldn’t believe they had actually killed somebody. Was what he did so bad that he just couldn’t be allowed to go on living? Wasn’t there anything about him that was redeemable?”
Twice a week, the inmate counsel substitute Gary Boudreaux makes rounds on the five death row tiers. He knows each of the surviving men housed there. “There was no tension on the row because the guys believed the execution wouldn’t happen,” Boudreaux said. “It had been so long, and they have good lawyers. They just didn’t think executions would come back.”
A week after the execution, Boudreaux returned to the row. The atmosphere was “totally different.” The men now knew that Governor Landry “is serious about executing people, and the state will execute people. There’s no doubt in their minds about that any more.”
Sacrifice the inconvenient, never the project. “Pal-washing” in action.
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A familiar script
On 9 October 2026, the Norwegian Nobel Committee awarded the Peace Prize to Navanethem Pillay, an 85-year-old South African jurist, former judge at the International Criminal Court and UN High Commissioner for Human Rights. The citation speaks of a person who has paved the way for a more comprehensive global legal order. The Committee’s chair, Jorgen Watne Frydnes, added that the prize is a message to those who attack and undermine the international system and its institutions. The verdict is avowedly political, and it is on this level that it must be discussed.
The very same figure who, in 2011, is said to have ‘toppled’ Gaddafi, paving the way for the plundering of Libyan oil and the enslavement of African migrants, would now ‘topple’ Netanyahu, thereby paving the way for Israel’s rehabilitation. The underlying logic would be neither morality nor peace, but the agenda of George Soros’s Open Society: to sacrifice those who have become inconvenient, never the essence of the project itself. Some have dubbed it ‘pal-washing’. The fundamental question is a serious one, for it asks whether there is a pattern behind the prizes and jurisdictions of the liberal order.
It must be emphasised that the script is already familiar. Do you remember when Barack Obama received the Nobel Peace Prize, whilst launching war after war? Or do you recall figures in search of a cause such as Machado, Mohammadi, or the defenders of Ukrainian criminals? But let us proceed in order.
Act One: Libya
In February 2011, Pillay, the High Commissioner, called on the Human Rights Council to take vigorous action to stop the violence and hold those responsible to account; the Council condemned the violations and established a commission of inquiry. The next step fell to the Security Council: referral to the ICC via Resolution 1970, followed by Resolution 1973, approved with ten votes in favour and five abstentions (Brazil, China, Germany, India, Russia). No one claims that Pillay decided to go to war. What matters is the sequence of events: the language of human rights opened the door, that of the protection of civilians authorised the use of force, and the operation gradually shifted towards regime change. As early as April, Lavrov was accusing NATO of exceeding its mandate, and a French minister admitted that regime change would have required a new vote.
Then there are the costs. In 2017, the IOM documented auctions of sub-Saharan migrants in southern Libya, sold for sums ranging from 200 to 500 dollars. The link with the collapse of the state after 2011 is the most plausible interpretation, although the source documents the phenomenon rather than its cause. Libya and the migrants paid the price; the legal framework emerged, formally speaking, intact, even if the controversy over the mandate would later weigh on the vetoes of Moscow and Beijing in other matters.
Act Two: Bibi
On 21 November 2024, Pre-Trial Chamber I of the ICC issued arrest warrants for Netanyahu and former Defence Minister Gallant, for war crimes and crimes against humanity. Pillay had left the Court in 2008, but chaired the UN Commission of Inquiry which, on 16 September 2025, concluded that Israel had committed genocide in Gaza. This is where ‘pal-washing’ comes into play. International criminal law deals with individuals: a defendant, a charge, a period of time. If the case concludes with the fate of a leader, a narrative break occurs – the ‘before’ and ‘after’ of a man – after which the state can present itself as restored. Libya offers an analogy: there, the case concluded with the fall of a man.
The limitations of the process work in favour of this interpretation. The Court has no police force and the execution of warrants depends on the States Parties; the Commission is not a court and does not speak on behalf of the entire UN; the Committee itself, according to AFP, has stated that it is up to a court to determine whether genocide has taken place. The award has no legal effect, as we know, but it lends legitimacy to a system that promises justice yet cannot guarantee it.
We must also bear in mind that we have already seen dynamics of this kind on numerous occasions within the globalist order that dominates the West. The Open Society Foundations presents itself as the world’s largest private funder of groups working for justice, democracy and human rights, active in over one hundred countries, and Pillay received the Stockholm Human Rights Award, the same prize that went to Soros and Neier in 2011. It certainly seems that the pattern of the Soros agenda is repeating itself once again – an agenda comprising foundations, NGOs, tribunals, commissions and bureaucracies that share a common lexicon and worldview: that of a liberal order to be perfected and never called into question. Those operating within that lexicon may denounce a government, a leader, or even a state, but they cannot challenge the underlying assumptions of the order that grants them legitimacy.
Some will object that Pillay’s Commission attributes responsibility to Israel as a state, not merely to its leaders, which contradicts the idea of a purely personalised operation. The second point concerns the reaction. Netanyahu accused the Committee of having lost its moral compass; the Israeli Foreign Ministry spoke of a grotesque exploitation of the prize; and Washington announced sanctions against the ICC just a few hours after the announcement. All true. But it would make sense and have value if the Western system were not rotten to its very core, if its legal system were functioning properly, but this is not the case, in any respect (and we have already seen sufficient evidence of this – let us not forget the Epstein case either).
If, over the next twelve months, Netanyahu’s political downfall is presented as the conclusion of the case, rather than as a stage in proceedings concerning the state, ‘Pal-washing’ will gain traction. If the proceedings continue beyond his person, and if the State Parties execute the warrants, perhaps it will lose ground. Given the current evidence, the argument is plausible and, until proven otherwise, this is yet another ‘Non-Peace’ Nobel Prize – one we cannot call ‘war’.
British imams are openly preaching that husbands can beat wives who refuse sex – and the police are doing almost nothing about it.
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In this episode of Rattling the Bars, host Mansa Musa interviews archivist, photographer, and veteran Black Panther Party member Billy X Jennings.
Joining the Party at age 17 after relocating from Hobson City, Alabama, to Oakland, Jennings managed BPP offices and served as bodyguard to Huey P. Newton. During Bobby Seale’s 1973 Oakland mayoral run, Jennings helped spearhead an unprecedented electoral effort: “…an organizing event on the highest level the parties had ever been. I mean, the party is known for organizing, but to go into electoral politics and do what we did for a first time basis, it changed over. Even though Bobby lost that election, it changed openly because it opened up so many doors. Part of his job was to kick down doors because we were the Vanguard.”
Today, Jennings operates the official Black Panther Party Alumni website and leads political education initiatives across the Bay Area for the Party’s 60th Anniversary.
Related links:
Credits:
The following is a rushed transcript and may contain errors. It will be updated.
Mansa Musa:
Welcome to the edition of Rattling the Bars. I’m your host, Mansa Musa. This year marks the 60th anniversary of the founding of the Black Panther Party, which started in Oakland in 1966. Today, I’m honored to be joined by Billy Jennings, AKA Billy X, well-known archivist in Oakland, member of the Black Panther Party, a photographer who runs the official Black Panther Party alumni website called It’s About Time. Thank you for joining me, Billy.
Billy X Jennings:
Hey, thanks for having me again. Good morning to everyone.
Mansa Musa:
And as we talked earlier, I was in different spaces and hoping I had met you while I was in Oakland. So this would more or less be like a reunion, but this is my first time meeting you. I’m really honored. I heard a lot about you. I know a lot about your work, and it’s an honor to be able to interview you about the party and some of the things and some of your experiences.
Billy X Jennings:
Okay.
Mansa Musa:
Please introduce yourself to our audience, who you are and how you came to be involved in the Black Panther Party.
Billy X Jennings:
Well, my name is Billy X. Jennings. I’m a member of the Black Panther Party. I joined in 1968 when I was 17 years old. And I came about joining the party because I’m from a historical town in Alabama in the South where most original members came from the South and migrated to California. So I came from a place called Hopson City, Alabama. And the tradition there, Hobson City have had the right to vote since 1890. And we were one of the only black municipal cities, little towns that could vote and had that right to do that. And so I came from a very strong area that had embedded that kind of thought into my mind. And when I traveled to California and I saw the Black Panther Party on TV for the first time in 1967 when they went to Sacramento, California, it blew my mind.
I was in high school at the time and I immediately changed our social… We had a social club called the Buccaneers. I changed it to the Panthers the next day. I didn’t know anything about the party with just that symbolism and how they stood up to the police and read their demands and so forth. It made a change happen in me. And it wasn’t until I graduated from high school, I decided to move to Oakland. And when I moved to Oakland, it was during the time that Huey knew the trial had just started and I was going to a college that’s two blocks away from where Huey was going on trial at the courthouse. And when the trial started, we would hear them saying Free Huey off the preg, free Huey. And I went over there one day and I was reading a book simultaneously at the same time called The Audible Malcolm X.
So what I read, I had read in the book already, but I heard Bobby Steele speak at a rally for Huey and they were saying the same thing. So it got me really interested in the party. And so I started going to the rallies to Free Huey. I met some Panthers and then they said their Panther office was going to open in my area. And when it did, I went down and joined, became a Panther in training and I’ve been working with the party ever since.
Mansa Musa:
Okay. And take us back to the party’s founding because you came in two years after its founding. And also you came in to your own observation and to what we know to be a fact, you came in at a point where they had just started to become on the radar of the feds, but more importantly, they was definitely on the radar of the Oakland police, LA police. And so talk about what was it like to be able to be in that space and ultimately find yourself in a position to be the bodyguard for Huey Newton once he got out.
Billy X Jennings:
Well, my process started at the very beginning. In 1968, there was a certain method the party employed. Before you became a Panther, you had to become a Panther in training, which requires six to eight week training. They give you a list of books that has about 35 different books, about books by Franc Fanon, Mao Saintong, Che Guevara, Pruma, and other revolutionaries to read. And you had to attend political education class on a weekly basis. Panthers at that time was required to read two hours a day. A Panther had to secure and have what we call technical equipment. Technical equipment was a firearm of some type, because at that time I joined the Black Panther Party, it was called Black Panther Party for self-defense. Later on, we dropped off the self-defense, but at that particular time, the party was engaged into patrolling
Police officers in the community, observing them and making sure they don’t beat and brutalize people. So the first six weeks is reading and studying and learning the rules of the Black Panther Party. And then you’re given a section. The city is divided into different sections. I worked in the section four in East Oakland. Section four had a section leader. They had a geographical area that they were responsible for. And so I was in section four. At that very beginning when I first started, we were theorizing about the breakfast program. It hadn’t came about, but we were still looking for geographical locations to have these breakfast programs in the future. So we did that. And every Panther is required to sell the Black Panther Party newspaper, which is the voice of the party. And at that time, the party was growing tremendously by leaps and bounds.
We had people flying into California from Kansas City, Chicago, New York, all to get this education. Before you can open up a chapter of the Black Panther Party or a branch of the Black Panther Party, you have to come to Oakland first and get educated. And you have to meet the leadership. The leadership has to eyeball you and find out your level of consciousness, what type of person you are before you can go back and represent the party. So this whole process was going on. People were flocking to the party. The party got so big that in 1969, we had put a stop on membership and we call that particular part of the party’s history the purge because the party had grown… I mean, the party was attractive. I mean, black coats, leather coats, I mean sunglasses and Afros at the same time. So this was a big thing for our culture.
At the same time, our culture level was rising even in music. James Brown had a record out in 1968 that elevated people’s social conscience, I’m Black and I’m proud. It moved people from the level of being a Negro, because that’s what the newspapers and that other people was referring us to. But in our community, we’re referring to ourselves as Black or African. And when James Brown came out with Black and I’m Proud, you could never go back to ever saying he was a Negro no more. There was different progress being made, but James Brown couldn’t sing no song like that. It wasn’t for groups like the Black Panther Party. Groups like The Shot Light Can’t Sing got to give more power to the
Mansa Musa:
People
Billy X Jennings:
Like the Black Panther Party, paving the way to educate people to lift up their consciousness. And so my role in the party, I came up as a Panther in training. I became a officer of the day, which is the person who runs the office. And from there I was transferred to central headquarters. Now, my name came about because my captain at that time was a legendary Panther called Robert Bay. Robert Bay ran the East Oakland office. Robert Bay was also an age of the central committee. And when Huey Newton got out of jail in 1970, the central committee made Robert Bay his permanent bodyguard and assistant. Now, I worked in that capacity as well after Huey got out of jail, mostly going to… I went to court with Huey on a daily basis because he was let out on appeal. He wasn’t just let out.
He had to go back to court and defend himself. And so my job became that. And also at the same time, I became to the Newton family. Mr. Newton, Mrs. Newton, I lived three or four blocks from them. I would walk over their house around the corner, mow their lawn. I’d be taken to the pharmacy, driving to doctors because they’re old people and they don’t drive so much. So that became my responsibility and me and Huey’s relationship grew behind that. So we had good personal relationship.
I worked central headquarters. Working at central headquarters was key to who I am today because I know Panthers from everywhere because every Panther had to call the central headquarters on a weekly basis or if the office gets ready or they need lawyer resources and stuff like that, I pick up the phone, write on the messages or tell them what they need to know. So I know Panthers from almost all the chapters and branches. And so I worked that group for a while. Then I was drafted into Bobby Seal’s campaign when he ran for mayor of open. I ran Bobby Seal’s campaign office in East Oakland. And it was an organizing event on the highest level the parties had ever been. I mean, the party is known for organizing, but to go into electorial politics and do what we did for a first time basis, it changed over.
Even though Bobby lost that election, it changed openly because it opened up so many doors. Part of his job was to kick down doors because we were the Vanguard. We had lead to struggle and there’s other people who follow behind us. I mean, our life was constantly in threat because we were on the front line, police department, clientele pro, all those things aimed at members of the Black Panther Party. So not only did we have the burden of dealing with the system, we had to deal with the authorities as well.
Mansa Musa:
Talk about, and you’re familiar with Eddie Conway, right? And so Eddie Conway, when he got locked up, he organized a chapter for the Black Panther Party in the prison, which I became a part of. And everything you outlined, as you was talking, I was reflecting on, we had to read at least two albums. We had every aspect of the thing that you outlined as what the party was doing, Eddie had us doing the same thing. We had political education classes, we had military classes, we had first aid classes. All our class was structured around an environment that we was in, and our technic class was finding a hole to get out of prison by any means necessary. So we had that type of mentality. So Billy, as an archivist, you have a lot of distortions in terms of the images that’s being projected of the party and it’s been dubbed Panther Porn, and just to note that it’s images that’s being perpetuated by the federal government, it’s images that’s become more idolization of the party versus the images as an archivist.
What would you say is the most positive or how would you characterize the imagery of the party as from an archivist in terms of educating people and raising their conscience? I see you with a shotgun. I know you in Sacramento. I know why you in Sacramento and I know why you coming out like that. That’s a good thing. But then I turn around, I see somebody standing on the corner. They got a picture of somebody standing on the corner with their mug broke and they got a bandela on and it had nothing to do with organizing, had nothing to do with raising people’s conscience. It’s got more to do with projecting the image of a thug, for lack of a better word. Talk about that if you can.
Billy X Jennings:
Well, the party was vilified on the highest level from the government who lied on us continuously to the media that used disinformation to scare people. The big image they had was, oh, these Negroes, they have guns. They’re angry. They hate white people. That’s their basic pitch on everything. Let it be Republican New Africa or any Black group, they paint them as very threatening group. And because we had guns, I mean, there was nothing… It wasn’t against the law in California to have guns, to have them in public long as they was not loaded, which we knew that. So the images they printed of the Black Panther Party was to vilify us and to scare white people and to frighten Black people. So it was all a part of their method to control who we were. They were trying to identify who we were. We could only define that.
We defined our own selves. And so that’s why we started a Panther newspaper in 1967 to get our voices and views out. So even though we had Time, Newsweek, Life Magazine, the Black Panther Party was cranking out close to 250 to 300,000 copies of papers per week into the community to combat this disinformation about the Black Panther Party. The 10 point program outlines what the Black Panther Party was all about, what we stood for.
Only on one aspect, which is 0.97, we talk about defending ourselves with guns. Other
Than that, we’re talking about social change in all levels, in education, housing and so forth. That was a threat to them because they did not want anyone to rocking the boat and we are rocking the boat. We are waking people up from their deep sleep. I mean, we’re telling people to read. We’re showing people what books to read. We are the Vanguard. People are following us. They didn’t want that. We had people in the white community, they wanted to join in with us. We had people from the Latino community, they want to join with us. You had people from around the world reading the 10 point program and looking at the positive aspect of the Black Panther Party. And that’s how we get the New Zealand Panthers and the Panthers from Africa and Panthers from India and the UK because of our social programs, how we was dealing with the oppressor here.
And so they follow those same examples there. They started social program, they started demanding and fighting for their rights. And that’s what the oppressor hates. They hate for people to wake up. And we were waking up big time in the 60s with the music, the culture, the back to Africa, who we are. How could you be a Negro in 1970 after all has been presented before you? So those things have changed. The party was a part of that change, that
Mansa Musa:
Consciousness. Talk about, because to your point, I remember reading the paper and when United Farm Workers, the party was one of the first papers to one, educate people on what their issues were, two, organize the boycott certain wines that they was taking and exploiting their labor and not giving them equal pay. So talk about the party’s social contribution to raising people’s concept, but more importantly, the elasticity of it, because can you see some of the influences today? Oh,
Billy X Jennings:
Definitely. Definitely. I can see the influences of the Rainbow Coalition. And that was something that Fred Hampton talked about. I could see the coalition building of the Black Panther Party. We’re working with the Brown Beret, the Young Lords, the Young Patriots. We’re working with the welfare rights groups. We’re working with the BSU, the Black Student Unions on campus. We’re working with prison groups. There was a number of prison groups throughout the country that started Black Panther Party off in San Quentin, in Algeria, Raway and other prisons because the ideology of the Black Panther Party was strong. What we were talking about, there was backbone to it. Everything we did was dialectic materialism, right? We were dialectic people. We looked at things from all sides. We just didn’t look at things in one side. Black Panther Party was an international group from the very start. Dewey and Bobby were international.
You can look at our reading list, those 35 books that come from Fanon, that’s from Africa, Mao Zeitang from China. So there was all kind of influences in the party. And so it was a big job just working to educate and organize people on all levels. Because in our community, action speaks. People learn in various ways, but in our community, people relate to action. They see something, they learn from it. Just like the breakfast program. We started the breakfast program in California and within two weeks it was a national program because people said, “Hey, we can do that here. This is how they did it. We can do it here.” The party set examples that people could follow in every aspect. We were on the forefront of fighting racism on all levels.


À partir du début du XXe siècle, la république a cherché à mieux encadrer les protestations populaires dans la rue en privilégiant l'évitement. Depuis les années 2000, l'approche est plus punitive. La priorité est donnée à l'arrestation des « fauteurs de troubles ». Une évolution qui favorise les violences et pose la question du respect du droit de manifester.
À la tribune du Palais-Bourbon, un député dénonce les violences qu'ont subies quelques jours plus tôt des protestataires, dans une petite ville du nord de la France. La journée a débuté par un regroupement devant une usine. Vers 9 heures, « les gendarmes, sur ordre du lieutenant et sans provocation, ont chargé. Un homme a été blessé, un enfant a eu l'oreille à moitié coupée. La colère de la foule a commencé là et s'est manifestée en effet par des pierres lancées ». Après un moment d'apaisement, la situation se tend à nouveau : « Vers 3 heures [de l'après-midi], de nouvelles bousculades ont lieu et le nombre des manifestants grossit. » Puis la violence se déchaîne : « Les gendarmes frappent de tous côtés. Des femmes, des enfants et des vieillards sont renversés. L'exaspération monte. Un grand nombre de citoyens ripostent aux gendarmes avec des pierres. » Soudain, c'est le drame : « Un grand désordre règne et c'est à ce moment que, sans qu'on sache qui en a donné l'ordre, sans sommation préalable, un terrible feu de peloton a été tiré dans cette masse de monde. (…) La place était couverte de blessés et de morts. » Interpellé, le ministre de l'intérieur répond avec véhémence : « Nous avons donné des ordres pour assurer la tranquillité publique ; nous les avons donnés avec netteté, fermeté et prudence. » Il livre ensuite son propre récit : « La gendarmerie locale a pu distinguer dans la foule toute la clientèle ordinaire des contrebandiers et des gens sans aveu qu'on peut évaluer à cinq ou six cents, parmi lesquels plus d'un quart d'étrangers. Toute la journée la force publique et l'armée ont eu à subir les injures, provocations et agressions de plus en plus violentes de la foule, et ce n'est qu'à la dernière extrémité et sous l'impression du danger qu'il n'était plus en leur pouvoir de conjurer autrement qu'elles ont dû recourir à la force des armes. »
Il conclut : « Je ne sais si les agents, lassés par les provocations de la foule, se sont laissé entraîner à quelques violences ; mais ce que je sais bien c'est que des hommes dont on n'a pas encore parlé ont été blessés et mis en danger de mort en accomplissant leur devoir. (…) Je tiens à envoyer mes remerciements à tous ces braves gens. » Cette dernière tirade déclenche la colère d'un député, qui le traite à deux reprises d'« assassin », et se voit exclu temporairement de l'Hémicycle.
Revendication de la « modération, [de la] fermeté et [de la] prudence » de l'État, controverse sur la responsabilité de l'escalade violente (manifestants ou gendarmes), rôle des « perturbateurs » (étrangers notamment), soutien inconditionnel aux forces de l'ordre : la scène fait écho aux polémiques qui entourent ces dernières semaines la répression des mouvements contre la réforme des retraites ou contre les mégabassines, comme à Sainte-Soline le 25 mars dernier. Pourtant, le député, bien que socialiste, n'appartient pas à la Nouvelle Union populaire écologique et sociale (Nupes) et le ministre n'est pas M. Gérald Darmanin. Il s'agit respectivement d'Ernest Roche et de Jean Antoine Ernest Constans, qui s'affrontent à la Chambre le 4 mai 1891, trois jours après le massacre de Fourmies, qui a fait neuf morts (dont deux enfants) et trente-cinq blessés par balle parmi les ouvriers réclamant la journée de huit heures et le repos du 1er-Mai (1).
Une telle similarité des échanges étonne car, depuis la fin du XIXe siècle, le maintien de l'ordre a beaucoup évolué. Il ne relève plus de l'armée, alors chargée de ce que l'on appelait les « émotions populaires ». Dès que la police locale ou la gendarmerie étaient en difficulté, on la faisait intervenir, comme le 145e régiment d'infanterie à Fourmies. Des Trois Glorieuses de 1830 à la « semaine sanglante » de 1871 en passant par les journées de juin 1848, l'écrasement des crises sociales ou de régime provoque des milliers de morts et des dizaines de milliers de blessés. Mais cette répression brutale ne constituait guère un problème politique, ni même moral. Pour les élites d'alors, le peuple est par nature différent. Il constitue une masse dépourvue de volonté individuelle, prête à suivre aveuglément quelques meneurs dans l'émeute (2). Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, contrôleur général des finances de Louis XVI, livre un condensé de cet imaginaire social dans sa lettre aux élus des états de Bourgogne du 18 avril 1775. À la suite des pillages et de la destruction d'un moulin par des paysans en colère contre le prix du grain, il écrit : « Il faut avant tout en imposer à la populace et être le plus fort », puis « arrêter les chefs de l'émeute, qu'on peut aisément connaître et découvrir », l'impunité étant considérée comme « un grand encouragement pour les émeutes à venir ».
À la fin du XIXe siècle, cette philosophie n'est plus guère soutenable. La domination politique restait le monopole de la noblesse sous l'Ancien Régime ; elle était réservée aux plus fortunés sous la monarchie censitaire ; l'instauration du suffrage universel masculin en 1848 admet le peuple en politique. Les formes les plus coutumières et personnelles d'autorité se dévaluent avec l'apparition des clubs, des comités électoraux, des ligues (comme celle de l'enseignement), des sociétés de secours mutuel, puis des partis. Ces structures organisent les citoyens et constituent le creuset de discours, de programmes et d'idéologies qui mettent particulièrement l'accent sur la question sociale et la condition des travailleurs (3). La mobilisation politique n'est pas pour rien dans l'avènement de la IIIe République et la consolidation des républicains, à partir de 1877. Même si cela va prendre des années, il devient délicat pour le nouveau régime de garantir d'un côté des libertés d'expression (avec par exemple les lois sur la presse de 1881), mais aussi celles de se réunir et de se syndiquer, tout en faisant tirer par la troupe sur ceux qui les exercent. D'autant que l'armée n'est pas toujours fiable. Lors de la révolte des vignerons de 1907 (qui fait sept morts à Narbonne), le 17e régiment d'infanterie se mutine et fraternise avec les manifestants, mettant en difficulté le gouvernement de Georges Clemenceau.
Le début du XXe siècle est donc marqué par plusieurs projets de loi visant à mettre en place une force spécialisée dans la gestion des protestations, distincte de l'armée. Après de multiples hésitations, celle-ci voit finalement le jour le 22 juillet 1921, avec la création de 111 « pelotons mobiles de gendarmerie ». Rebaptisée « garde républicaine mobile » en 1926, cette force comptait 21 000 hommes en 1939 et avait le quasi-monopole du maintien de l'ordre sur le territoire français, à l'exception de Paris. Elle développe une doctrine, un entraînement et des savoir-faire originaux (4). Il s'agit de ne plus traiter les protestataires comme des ennemis ou des adversaires mais comme des « individus temporairement suggestionnés », pour reprendre la terminologie des années 1930, ou des « citoyens temporairement égarés », pour utiliser celle des années 1970. Ceci suppose d'éviter les contacts directs avec ces derniers, dont l'expérience montre qu'ils dégénèrent toujours en affrontements. On leur préfère des techniques de canalisation, de contention et de dispersion des foules, qui impliquent notamment de laisser toujours une porte de sortie. La discipline collective, le barrage des corps, la crosse du fusil et la matraque constituent dans un premier temps les seuls outils disponibles. Ils sont complétés après la seconde guerre mondiale par des technologies permettant de tenir les manifestants à distance, comme le gaz lacrymogène — inenvisageable auparavant en France en raison du souvenir des tranchées —, les grenades offensives et les lances à incendie. En 1944, la police se dote à son tour d'unités spécifiques, les compagnies républicaines de sécurité (CRS), qui comptent près de 13 000 hommes en 1947 et reproduisent l'organisation, la doctrine et l'équipement de la gendarmerie mobile.
Les deux forces s'engagent dans les rugueux conflits sociaux de la période (comme les grèves des mineurs de 1947-1948), au prix d'un grand nombre de blessés de part et d'autre. Mais on remarque une diminution significative des décès parmi les protestataires, notamment en province. Paris reste une exception, le préfet disposant de ses propres unités, prises parmi les effectifs de la police municipale (5). Elles ne disposent ni de l'entraînement ni du savoir-faire de leurs collègues et n'hésitent pas à déchaîner leur brutalité et à « régler leurs comptes » avec les Algériens (sept victimes lors de la manifestation du 14 juillet 1953 et plusieurs dizaines le 17 octobre 1961 (6)) ou les communistes (dix morts au métro Charonne à Paris, le 8 février 1962).
La crise de mai-juin 1968, par sa virulence et son ampleur, met à rude épreuve le ministère de l'intérieur. Contrairement au discours officiel, cinq morts sont à déplorer (trois étudiants à Paris, à Flins et dans le Calvados, et deux ouvriers à Sochaux) mais, surtout, les forces de l'ordre sont apparues dépassées en nombre et en équipement. En conséquence, vingt mille policiers sont recrutés entre 1968 et 1974, et CRS comme gendarmes mobiles reçoivent de nouvelles protections corporelles (casques, visières, jambières, boucliers, masques à gaz) et du matériel offensif et défensif, comme les fourgons-pompe, les véhicules blindés à roues de la gendarmerie (VBRG) et des grenades plus diversifiées. En avril 1969 ouvre également à Saint-Astier, en Dordogne, le Centre de perfectionnement de la gendarmerie mobile (CPGM), destiné à la formation continue des personnels. En 1977, une véritable ville — Cigaville — avec des bâtiments, des rues et des places y est construite, permettant de s'entraîner à toutes les situations du maintien de l'ordre, y compris les plus dures (barricades, cocktails Molotov). Les CRS en profitent aussi, avant de se doter de leurs propres centres. Ces entraînements visent à inculquer aux personnels une discipline collective et une maîtrise d'eux-mêmes permettant de gérer la peur et le stress inhérents à leurs missions.
Une nouvelle actualisation significative de l'équipement s'opère à la suite de la manifestation des marins-pêcheurs de Rennes du 4 février 1994, considérée par les professionnels comme l'une des plus violentes de la période contemporaine (usage de fusées de détresse et de harpons, blessures « de guerre » chez des policiers et gendarmes, incendie du parlement de Bretagne). Des grilles sont apposées sur les véhicules, et surtout apparaissent les tenues de « Robocop », comme les nomment les intéressés : uniformes ignifugés, manchettes, coudières, épaulières et casque en Kevlar, protège-nuque, etc. (7).
La « violence contenue » revendiquée par les forces de l'ordre laisse dans son sillage un vaste cortège de blessés et de mutilés. Mais les victimes mortelles sont rares après 1968, au point que l'on se souvient encore des noms de Malik Oussekine, tué par des voltigeurs motocyclistes lors du mouvement étudiant contre la loi Devaquet, en décembre 1986, ou de Rémi Fraisse, qui décède des suites de la déflagration d'une grenade à Sivens, en octobre 2014 (8). Les responsables policiers en sont même venus à vanter un « modèle français » de maintien de l'ordre. Ils regardent avec circonspection les difficultés des polices étrangères pour faire face au mouvement altermondialiste (comme à Seattle en 1999, à Göteborg et à Gênes en 2001) et restent à l'écart des réflexions qui se mènent au niveau européen.
Pourtant, quelque chose change graduellement à partir de la fin des années 1990. Les principaux responsables gouvernementaux considèrent que la conflictualité sociale a diminué et voient dans les compagnies de CRS et les escadrons de gendarmerie mobile (EGM) un réservoir de personnels pouvant être aisément redéployés dans la lutte contre l'« insécurité », dont ils ont fait une priorité. Amorcé sous le gouvernement de M. Lionel Jospin (1997-2002), ce mouvement s'accélère par la suite. Le programme d'action annexé à la loi d'orientation et de programmation pour la sécurité intérieure du 29 août 2002 indique ainsi : « Les forces mobiles ont été créées dans un contexte historique particulier marqué par des périodes d'émeutes et de troubles collectifs. La démocratie apaisée que notre pays connaît depuis de nombreuses années permet aujourd'hui un changement radical de la doctrine d'emploi des forces mobiles. Cette politique systématique rompant avec la priorité de l'ordre public permet de mettre les trente mille hommes qui constituent aujourd'hui les forces mobiles au service de la sécurité quotidienne. »
Le nombre de policiers et de gendarmes disponibles pour le maintien de l'ordre diminue. Ils ne sont plus que 25 786 en 2015, soit une baisse de presque 15 % par rapport à 2002, alors même que leurs missions se sont diversifiées. La saturation qui en découle pour ces unités s'est traduite par la montée en puissance des compagnies d'intervention (CDI). Existant localement sous des formats divers, elles sont composées de policiers de sécurité publique qui remplissent surtout des missions de sécurisation dans la lutte contre les « violences urbaines » et les trafics de stupéfiants. Reconnaissables à leurs casques barrés de deux bandes bleu roi (qui les distinguent des jaunes des CRS), elles sont devenues depuis la fin des années 2000 un élément central du maintien de l'ordre. Outre le renfort numérique qu'elles apportent, elles sont plus autonomes dans leur commandement et leur action que les CRS et les EGM, considérés comme trop statiques. Elles apparaissent également mieux ajustées que ces derniers à la judiciarisation du maintien de l'ordre.
L'arrestation ne faisait partie qu'à la marge de la gestion des manifestations (par exemple après leur dissolution). Le général Bertrand Cavallier, ancien responsable du CPGM, explique que la doctrine traditionnelle consiste d'abord à « absorber une violence qui est généralement une violence passagère. C'est le concept de désordre acceptable. Quel est l'effet final recherché ? Va-t-on s'intéresser à quelques dégradations ou va-t-on comprendre qu'après cette montée de fièvre il y a un retour à la normale et que l'on va pouvoir discuter et essayer de répondre aux attentes des manifestants, même si ces manifestants ont été violents (9) ? ». À partir du début des années 2000, le tournant punitif des gouvernements qui se succèdent se fait sentir sur ce terrain également. Il s'agit d'en finir avec l'« impunité » et donc d'identifier et d'arrêter des fauteurs de troubles. Les CRS et les gendarmes vidéastes font leur apparition, et plus récemment les « produits marquants codés », laissant des traces sur la peau et les vêtements. Des techniques qui permettent d'intervenir a posteriori. Les procureurs n'hésitent plus à autoriser les arrestations préventives et à organiser leurs services pour agir dans l'urgence. Surtout, on assiste à une actualisation tactique qui sépare les manifestants conformes de ceux qui se livrent à des actes illégaux (les « casseurs »), qu'il faut maintenant aller chercher au cœur même des cortèges. Cette distinction se retrouve clairement dans le schéma national du maintien de l'ordre adopté en 2021. Il formule deux objectifs « distincts ou complémentaires » de la gestion de la manifestation, « la dispersion sans délai des groupes hostiles et des interpellations rapides et ciblées facilitées par la mise en œuvre de dispositifs tactiques permettant d'aller au contact des individus identifiés ». Bien que les EGM et les CRS disposent d'unités capables d'assurer ces tâches, elles sont en pratique assumées par les CDI et surtout par les brigades anticriminalité (BAC) et les controversées brigades de répression de l'action violente motorisées (BRAV-M), créées en 2019.
Malgré tous les efforts rhétoriques pour expliquer la complémentarité de ces tactiques, elles sont partiellement contradictoires. « Impacter » ou « percuter » des « groupes hostiles » a souvent pour effet de stopper les cortèges et de porter la violence en leur sein. Les charges comme les gaz lacrymogènes ne sont pas sélectifs. Ils touchent d'abord les moins aguerris, provoquent l'incompréhension et attisent la colère. De plus, le risque physique d'intervenir dans une foule, en petit nombre de surcroît, augmente la probabilité d'user de la force. De multiples vidéos postées sur les réseaux sociaux attestent le désordre causé par l'intervention de ces polices urbaines, quand elles ne montrent pas les conflits qui éclatent avec les gendarmes mobiles ou les CRS, dont elles désorganisent les dispositifs. Facilement mises en difficulté, elles ont également plus volontiers recours aux grenades de désencerclement et aux lanceurs de balles de défense (comme le LBD 40).
Apparue au milieu des années 1990 (sous le nom commercial de Flash-Ball), cette arme « à létalité réduite » était destinée à l'origine à des unités spécialisées dans la neutralisation des forcenés ou des preneurs d'otages. Elle s'est graduellement diffusée au sein des BAC et des CDI puis s'est généralisée après l'embrasement des banlieues françaises en 2005. Ce sont d'abord ces policiers qui en systématisent l'usage dans les manifestations. Lors de la crise des « gilets jaunes », sur les 13 460 tirs de LBD recensés entre le 17 novembre 2018 et le 5 février 2019, 85 % étaient imputables aux polices urbaines, contre 15 % aux CRS. Sur la même période, la gendarmerie rapportait un millier de tirs (10). Si la controverse sur les ravages qu'elles ont provoqués a fait diminuer l'usage de ces armes, il ne s'en est pas moins banalisé. Le rapport annuel de l'inspection générale de la police nationale (IGPN) relève ainsi 6 684 tirs en 2021, contre 1 514 en 2012, soit quatre fois plus en neuf ans.
Enfin, le rôle dévolu aux polices urbaines dans les manifestations modifie les représentations des manifestants. Portés par leur socialisation professionnelle à se penser comme des « chasseurs », leurs agents ne sont guère enclins à considérer ces derniers comme des « citoyens momentanément égarés ». Ils les voient plutôt comme des délinquants (ou comme leurs complices) et n'hésitent pas à les traiter comme tels : humiliations et brimades diverses, arrestations musclées, etc.
Tous ces facteurs concourent à expliquer la « brutalisation du maintien de l'ordre (11) » repérable depuis le milieu des années 2010, dont le mouvement des « gilets jaunes » a pour l'heure constitué l'acmé. Toutefois, celle-ci reste inintelligible si on ne la relie pas à la délégitimation de la manifestation comme mode d'action politique.
Le maintien de l'ordre ne se limite pas à un face-à-face entre policiers et protestataires. Il s'agit d'une relation à trois qui implique également les gouvernants. Tout au long du XXe siècle s'est graduellement développé un ordre manifestant. Celui-ci implique une adaptation des forces de l'ordre, mais aussi des citoyens, lesquels abandonnent progressivement le registre de l'émeute pour des répertoires plus codifiés comme la manifestation. La mise en place de cortèges, de banderoles, de revendications, de mots et de services d'ordre procède de cet apprentissage protestataire (12). Toutefois, il n'est possible que parce qu'il permet la négociation politique, c'est-à-dire qu'il est reconnu comme une expression démocratique du dissensus. Le commissaire Jean-Marc Berlioz, directeur adjoint de la sécurité publique à la préfecture de police de Paris, observait en 1997 : « Désormais tout citoyen est appelé un jour à devenir manifestant, et je partage l'analyse qui veut que la manifestation soit un correctif à l'élection (13). »
Une telle formule semble désormais heurter les représentations des élites gouvernantes, qui n'ont pas la même expérience de l'action collective que leurs aînées. L'élection, même fragile, dont ils tirent leur position est perçue comme la seule source de légitimité et pratiquement comme un chèque en blanc. Le refus du dialogue avec les centrales syndicales (pourtant représentatives, elles aussi) et les groupes mobilisés (comme les personnels soignants) tout comme l'utilisation jusqu'à la dernière extrémité des outils légaux pour museler le Parlement (« 49-3 », limitation du temps des débats, sanctions disciplinaires) attestent une conception verticale du pouvoir qui fait peu cas de la contestation.
Dans les discours, les expressions comme « foules », « meutes » ou « hordes » réactivent une vision de la populace ignare et brutale que n'aurait pas reniée Turgot. On applique d'ailleurs une politique semblable dans ses principes : exhiber la force pour intimider et utiliser la justice pour neutraliser, même temporairement. Charges intempestives, usage abusif des gaz, des LBD ou des « nasses », zones interdites, gardes à vue préventives, amendes, fichages policiers et déferrements en masse se combinent ainsi pour rendre les manifestations plus inhospitalières, incertaines et insécurisantes.
Or la brutalisation du maintien de l'ordre et celle du jeu politique sont les deux faces d'un même processus. Le refus de la négociation et le déni de l'expression manifestante provoquent une colère qui augmente le niveau de violence. La focalisation des médias sur la moindre poubelle brûlée ou sur la dégradation de mobilier urbain renforce cette dynamique. Dans les luttes « pour l'imposition du sens de l'événement (14) », le choix de rapporter les actes les plus spectaculaires plutôt que les revendications exprimées — souvent avec beaucoup d'inventivité — confortent les premiers. Ils trouvent en effet un écho inversement proportionnel à leur poids dans la mobilisation. En retour, ils provoquent un durcissement de l'action policière et facilitent la disqualification de mouvements pourtant massifs, réduits aux menées de ceux que les ministres de l'intérieur nomment commodément les « black blocs », les « anarcho-autonomes » ou l'« ultragauche ».
On perçoit les bénéfices politiques immédiats de cette dislocation de l'ordre manifestant. Ses effets demeurent plus douteux à moyen terme. Elle produit d'abord une adaptation des protestataires. Ils apprennent à mieux se protéger (équipements contre les gaz, apparition des street medics, etc.), à rendre visibles les violences policières (en les filmant) et adoptent des stratégies favorisant la confrontation, la mobilité et l'imprévisibilité plutôt que l'expression de mots d'ordre. Ces évolutions pourraient ensuite déboucher sur un retour à des modes d'action plus radicaux, comme l'émeute, le sabotage, l'incendie, le blocage ou l'occupation.
Mais, surtout, le gouvernement d'un pays suppose un consentement minimal de ceux sur lesquels il s'exerce, c'est-à-dire des contreparties. Juste après le drame de Fourmies, le député Alexandre Millerand — qui deviendra plusieurs fois ministre, puis président de la République (1920-1924) — interpelle le ministre Constans : « Si la République a été fondée, si elle existe, si elle a été maintenue à travers toutes les crises, vous ne le devez, vous le savez bien d'ailleurs, qu'à ces millions de travailleurs de l'usine, des champs, de la mine qui attendent aujourd'hui de la République les réformes sociales qu'elle leur doit. » Son discours résonne étrangement avec celui de M. Gérard Mardiné, alors secrétaire général de la Confédération française de l'encadrement — Confédération générale des cadres (CFE-CGC), qui s'adressait le 15 février 2023 à la commission des affaires sociales du Sénat : « Votre politique, vous la menez pour qui ? Pour les salariés français ou pour les fonds de pension anglo-saxons ? »
Tous deux nous rappellent que l'instauration et la consolidation d'un État démocratique en France sont inséparables des protections qu'il a dû apporter à la condition salariale, c'est-à-dire des compromis trouvés entre le travail et le capital (15). Le déséquilibre manifeste qui s'est instauré en faveur des plus privilégiés — et que l'on n'essaie même plus de dissimuler — sape ce contrat social implicite. Les élites politiques qui en sont responsables démontent ainsi pierre à pierre une construction dont elles sont les héritières ignorantes. La démocratie représentative ne fonctionne pas comme un dialogue courtois et feutré entre les actionnaires d'un conseil d'administration ou les membres des comités directeurs d'institutions financières internationales. Elle vit et s'exprime aussi par les éclats de mobilisations collectives qui actualisent périodiquement les rapports de forces entre représentants et représentés. En rappelant publiquement l'intérêt du plus grand nombre, elles contribuent à la légitimité de la délégation politique, bien mieux que les consignes de politique pénale, les circulaires sur la composition des grenades lacrymogènes ou les doctrines d'emploi des LBD.
(1) Ces citations sont extraites du Journal officiel de la République française du 5 mai 1891, https://gallica.bnf.fr
(2) Déborah Cohen, La Nature du peuple. Les formes de l'imaginaire social (XVIIIe – XXIe siècles), Champ Vallon, Ceyzérieu, 2010.
(3) Christophe Charle, Histoire sociale de la France au XIXe siècle, Seuil, Paris, 1991.
(4) Patrick Bruneteaux, Maintenir l'ordre. Les transformations de la violence d'État en régime démocratique, Presses de Sciences Po, Paris, 1996.
(5) La police parisienne n'est intégrée dans la police nationale qu'en 1966.
(6) Emmanuel Blanchard, La Police parisienne et les Algériens (1944-1962), Nouveau Monde, Paris, 2011.
(7) David Dufresne, Maintien de l'ordre. Enquête, Hachette, Paris, 2007.
(8) Il faut y ajouter Vital Michalon, victime d'une grenade lors des mobilisations contre l'installation d'une centrale nucléaire à Creys-Malville, en juillet 1977, et Zineb Redouane, tuée par un tir de lacrymogène dans son appartement en décembre 2018 à Marseille.
(9) « Maintien de l'ordre : du terrain au politique », conférence du 16 octobre 2020, vidéo disponible sur YouTube.
(10) Jacqueline Eustache-Brinio, « Rapport sur la proposition de loi visant à interdire l'usage des lanceurs de balles de défense dans le cadre du maintien de l'ordre et à engager une réflexion sur les stratégies de désescalade et les alternatives pacifiques possibles à l'emploi de la force publique dans ce cadre », Sénat, Paris, 20 février 2019.
(11) Olivier Fillieule et Fabien Jobard, Politiques du désordre. La police des manifestations en France, Seuil, 2020.
(12) Charles Tilly, La France conteste. De 1600 à nos jours, Fayard, Paris, 1986.
(13) « Table ronde : à propos des matériels de maintien de l'ordre », Les Cahiers de la sécurité intérieure, n° 27, Paris, 1997.
(14) Patrick Champagne, Faire l'opinion, Éditions de Minuit, Paris, 1990.
(15) Robert Castel, Les Métamorphoses de la question sociale. Une chronique du salariat, Gallimard, Paris, 1999.

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Souvent condamnés jeunes à des très longues peines, des dizaines de milliers de détenus américains ont aujourd'hui atteint un âge canonique, obligés de finir leurs jours dans des prisons où rien n'a été pensé pour eux. Grimper sur un lit superposé, attendre debout dans une file, mastiquer une nourriture inadaptée, sans même parler de rencontrer un médecin : chaque tâche du quotidien est une épreuve.
L'imam Jamil Abdullah Al-Amin, également connu sous le nom de H. Rap Brown, fut l'une des voix les plus influentes du mouvement pour les droits civiques et du Black Power aux États-Unis, au sein du Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) et du Black Panther Party notamment. Surveillé par le Bureau fédéral d'enquête (FBI), il a été condamné à la prison à perpétuité en 2002 pour le meurtre de l'adjoint d'un shérif, une accusation qu'il a toujours rejetée. Il est mort le 23 novembre 2025, à 82 ans, dans un hôpital pénitentiaire de Caroline du Nord, après une longue dégradation de son état de santé.
H. Rap Brown est loin d'être le seul à avoir vieilli et péri derrière les barreaux. En 2022, 186 146 personnes incarcérées aux États-Unis avaient dépassé les 55 ans — le seuil pour être considéré comme « âgé » dans de nombreux États —, contre environ 42 300 en 2000 (1). « On vieillit plus vite en prison, explique M. Jose Saldaña, ancien militant de l'organisation révolutionnaire portoricaine Young Lords, libéré en 2018 après trente-huit ans d'incarcération. Le stress, le manque de nourriture, être jour et nuit enfermé dans une cellule, être séparé de sa famille… Ça accélère le vieillissement. » Les personnes détenues présentent en effet, plus tôt et plus fréquemment que la population générale, des pathologies chroniques, des handicaps, des troubles cognitifs ou des maladies cardio-vasculaires. Un prisonnier de 59 ans présenterait ainsi, en moyenne, les conditions gériatriques d'un homme de 75 ans, tandis que l'espérance de vie diminue de deux ans pour chaque année d'enfermement (2).
Ce vieillissement est en grande partie l'héritage différé de plusieurs décennies de politiques répressives et d'incarcération de masse. À partir des années 1970, puis surtout dans les années 1980 et 1990, les États et le gouvernement fédéral ont multiplié les peines minimales obligatoires, les lois dites « three strikes » (des « trois prises »), qui prévoient des peines très lourdes, voire la perpétuité, en cas de récidives successives, et les dispositifs de « truth in sentencing » (« vérité des peines »), qui obligent les condamnés à purger une large part de leur peine avant de pouvoir prétendre à une libération. En allongeant considérablement les durées d'incarcération et en restreignant les possibilités de sortie, ces politiques ont progressivement transformé la population carcérale : des hommes et des femmes entrés en prison jeunes ou à l'âge adulte y sont restés pendant des décennies, jusqu'à vieillir derrière les barreaux. La part des prisonniers seniors a ainsi bondi de 3 % en 1991 à 15,7 % en 2022. En Floride, 29 % de la population carcérale actuelle a plus de 50 ans. Dans moins de cinq ans, ce sera le cas d'un tiers des prisonniers américains.
Cette transformation pose une myriade de difficultés logistiques et financières. Les prisons ont été pensées pour des personnes autonomes, mobiles et capables de supporter les contraintes physiques de la détention. « Elles ne sont pas construites pour les personnes porteuses de handicap, qui ont besoin d'un fauteuil roulant, d'un déambulateur ou même d'une canne », observe le chercheur Thomas Baker. Un migrant mexicain actuellement enfermé à Adelanto, en Californie, nous raconte qu'un de ses codétenus âgés se douche rarement, l'opération étant trop périlleuse avec un déambulateur. « Les détenus âgés n'ont pas accès au soutien dont ils ont besoin : ils doivent quotidiennement accomplir des tâches au-delà de leurs capacités physiques, comme monter sur un lit superposé, attendre debout dans une file, mastiquer de la nourriture inadaptée… », détaille la chercheuse et avocate Michele Deitch, directrice du Prison and Jail Innovation Lab. Quant aux personnes atteintes de démence, elles sont incapables d'obéir aux règles drastiques de la détention, ce que les surveillants ne tolèrent pas.
Les prisons américaines manquent de moyens et de personnel. Dans le Michigan, par exemple, 910 postes pénitentiaires, 504 postes médicaux et 55 postes administratifs étaient vacants en décembre 2024, soit près de 15 % des effectifs (3). Dans le Colorado, pour pallier cette situation, l'administration pénitentiaire a réassigné des agents à des postes de sécurité, abaissé l'âge de recrutement à 18 ans et imposé de nombreuses heures supplémentaires à ses employés. Pour les détenus âgés, ce sous-effectif a des conséquences très concrètes : consultations médicales retardées, diagnostics et traitements repoussés, déplacements limités… Dans une prison de Los Angeles visitée par l'American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), les patients devaient attendre leurs soins à même le sol pendant des heures. Selon Baker, le problème est notamment géographique. « Les prisons américaines se trouvent souvent dans des zones rurales éloignées. Il est difficile de convaincre les rares professionnels de santé qui voudraient bien travailler en prison de faire de longs déplacements vers ces lieux peu attractifs. » Le vieillissement des détenus accentue les failles d'un système déjà sous tension.
Ces difficultés n'exonèrent pas les établissements pénitentiaires de leurs obligations légales. La loi relative aux Américains porteurs de handicap (ADA) les oblige en effet à rendre leurs espaces comme leurs activités accessibles à tous, et à fournir certains équipements et aménagements adaptés. Mais beaucoup de détenus connaissent mal leurs droits ou n'ont pas les moyens de les faire valoir. Ils doivent donc le plus souvent se débrouiller seuls, ou s'entraider. « Quand je suis arrivé en prison en 1980, j'ai croisé un autre prisonnier, plus vieux. Il m'avait dit : “Si tu ne dois avoir que deux livres avec toi, que ce soient ton livre sacré et un dictionnaire médical.” C'est devenu ma deuxième Bible. J'ai appris à lire mes résultats d'examens et, dès que quelque chose clochait, j'écrivais pour demander à voir un médecin », relate M. Saldaña. À son tour, il a aidé un autre prisonnier : « Je lui ai montré comment porter plainte parce que sa cellule ne respectait pas la loi. Ils étaient censés tout adapter : le lit, le fauteuil, les toilettes, les lavabos… Pour se venger de sa plainte, ils l'ont mis à l'isolement, l'ont laissé tout seul sur un lit, où il se souillait ; ils glissaient sur le sol un plateau-repas qu'il ne pouvait pas attraper… » Difficile de savoir combien de détenus âgés vivent de telles situations. Selon les associations spécialisées, les abus et maltraitances seraient monnaie courante, mais la plupart ne sont pas signalés, faute de pouvoir recueillir aisément la parole des détenus. « Cela passe essentiellement par des échanges de courriers. Cela prend du temps, les gens ne savent pas toujours bien écrire ou donner les détails qui nous sont utiles », explique Mme Jia Min Cheng, avocate de l'organisation Disability Rights California (DRC).
Faut-il maintenir en détention des individus âgés dont le risque de récidive est faible, alors que leur prise en charge coûte cher ? Une étude publiée en 2017, portant sur plus de 25 000 personnes libérées de prison, montre que 13,4 % de celles qui avaient 65 ans ou plus ont été de nouveau arrêtées dans les huit années suivantes, contre 67,7 % des moins de 21 ans (4). En outre, les prisonniers âgés coûtent environ trois fois plus cher à l'administration pénitentiaire que les détenus plus jeunes, principalement en raison de leurs besoins médicaux. « Difficile à défendre auprès des contribuables », souligne Baker. Dans ce contexte, de nombreux États prévoient des dispositifs permettant d'abréger l'incarcération des personnes âgées ou gravement malades : la medical parole, ou libération pour « raison médicale », et la geriatric parole, qui permet d'examiner le cas d'un détenu à partir d'un certain âge. Dans les faits, ces mécanismes restent peu utilisés. « La plupart des membres des commissions sont nommés par le gouverneur. Et ils sont très frileux, ils ont peur de prendre les mauvaises décisions, que ça se répercute sur le gouverneur. Alors ils jouent la sécurité », constate Deitch. Selon les données fédérales, 84 % des 31 069 demandes de libération compassionnelle soumises aux tribunaux entre 2019 et 2023 ont été rejetées (5).
Pour ceux qui sortent, une autre épreuve commence : la réinsertion. Comment retrouver un logement et des repères après plusieurs décennies derrière les barreaux ? « Il ne s'agit pas de relâcher les prisonniers si c'est pour qu'ils deviennent des sans-abri. Il faut des soutiens pour les accompagner », rappelle la chercheuse. « La réinsertion est difficile, confirme M. Saldaña. C'est pour ça qu'on se bat pour que les gens soient libérés à un âge où ils sont encore “productifs''. » Il cite l'exemple d'Osborne, un programme de logements à New York pour les personnes âgées anciennement incarcérées : une résidence entièrement adaptée, avec des logements indépendants et accessibles, une cour… Mais les secondes chances comme celle-ci restent rares. M. Saldaña a lui-même essuyé quatre refus de libération conditionnelle avant de convaincre la commission.
Et, pour ceux qui ne sortiront jamais, reste une question : comment mourir en prison ? Gravement malades ou condamnés à la perpétuité, les détenus finissent souvent leurs jours en cellule ou dans un service de soins palliatifs — quand il en existe… À Kilby, en Alabama, où il a passé treize ans derrière les barreaux, M. David Garlock a participé à un programme d'hospice assuré par des détenus volontaires. « Ils ont mis une affichette à la recherche de bénévoles pour l'hospice. On était trente-deux volontaires au départ de la formation. Après avoir appris qu'on devrait changer des couches, des pansements, laver les patients…, nous n'étions plus que trois », racontait-il lors d'une conférence (6). Ce modèle de soins par des pairs existe dans plusieurs prisons américaines mais reste peu répandu. À Vacaville, en Californie, le service de soins palliatifs fait lui aussi appel à des détenus pour accompagner les patients. Ils sont rémunérés 24 cents de l'heure, contre environ 1 dollar pour ceux employés au nettoyage de l'établissement. En prison, loin de leur famille, les détenus sont aussi condamnés à prendre soin des autres jusqu'à leur dernier souffle.
(1) « Trapped in times. The silent crisis of elderly incarceration », American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), septembre 2025.
(2) Farah Acher Kaiksow, Lars Brown et Kristin Brunsell Merss, « Caring for the rapidly aging incarcerated population : The role of policy », Journal of Gerontological Nursing, vol. 49, n° 3, Thorofare (New Jersey), mars 2023.
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Danny Tommo, the anti-migrant activist, has been denied bail after appearing in court for allegedly slashing a migrant boat in the Channel – despite the five suspects in the RAF Fairford terror plot all being bailed.
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